Sunday, January 26, 2020

Five Axioms of Urban Economics

Five Axioms of Urban Economics Economics is a science of scarcity and it is bound by rules and principles like other sciences. Arthur O’Sullivan’s five axioms of urban economics are the guiding principles for urban economic theory. In this essay, the author will define and discuss O’Sullivan’s five axioms of urban economics, and then explain the existence of cities utilizing the five axioms of urban economics. The Five Axioms of Urban Economics The first axiom of Urban Economics is stated as prices adjust to achieve locational equilibrium. What this axiom means is that prices change based on the desirability of the area until individuals no longer desire to leave their current occupied area of residence. Locational equilibrium is what keeps Dallas residents living in Dallas. South Dallas and Oak Cliff may be rough areas to live in, but property values are cheaper because of the perceived value of present characteristics of these areas. Down Town, Dallas is an expensive area in which to live, but wages are higher. Fewer people want to live Oak Cliff or South Dallas when compared to Downtown, so homes are priced lower in Oak Cliff or South Dallas than in Downtown. Prices for housing, land, and wages are always adjusting to make urban areas equally appealing. People will not place the same values on all cities equally, but with a multitude of cities and variance in individual circumstances, cities can reach equilibrium. The second axiom of Urban Economics is self-reinforcing effects generate extreme outcomes. This axiom means that if one type of person or group moves into an area, then that area will become more attractive to the same types of people or groups. Think about places around the Dallas area. Are there areas known for rich people the Dallas-Fort Worth metropolitan area? What about trailer parks or areas specifically known for high poverty in North Texas are there any that come to mind? Is there any certain street where you might find a surplus of car dealerships, gas stations, or restaurants? These are all examples that could be considered extreme outcomes. These outcomes happen because of self-reinforcing effects, or changes that lead to similar changes. When a trailer park locates in a city, for example, the area right around that park becomes an excellent spot for a new trailer park, and this creates even more appeal for a third park, and so on. Soon the area has additional stores and services targeted at people living in trailer parks, adding to the appeal for future expansion. The same outcome is true for any group of people where there is a higher concentration or that group, such as African Americans concentrated in South Dallas. The third axiom is externalities cause inefficiency. An externality is a cost or benefit that is passed on to someone outside of a transaction. There are two types of externalities, positive and negative. A negative externality, or external cost, is an economic activity that imposes a negative effect on an unrelated third party (Urban Economics, 8E). A positive externality, or external benefit, is the positive effect an activity imposes on an unrelated third party (Urban Economics, 8E). For example, if a widget business expanded into a widget factory, then a negative externality of this expansion would be the increase in pollution that a factory would produce. Positive externalities of the expansion would be the improved effect in production of widgets through research and that the laborers’ work became easier and less dangerous. Both positive and negative externalities can occur on either the production or the consumption side (Urban Economics, 8E). Externalities cause ineffi ciency because they incentivize people to do too much or too little of something. The fourth axiom of Urban Economics is that production is subject to economies of scale. The higher the volume of production of a firm, the lower the production cost. If the firm makes only one widget it will incur the total cost of buying the needed supplies, research and development of making a widget, and time cost of producing the widget. The cost would be very high. If a widget factory made millions of widgets, it may receive cost reduction for buying supplies in bulk, and through higher production of widgets the production process could be streamlined and cut costs. By principle of scale of economy, the cost of making the millionth widget will be less than the cost of producing the first widget. The fifth and final axiom of Urban Economics is that competition generates zero economic profit (Urban Economics, 8E). Where there are profits, there are people interested in getting their share (Urban Economics, 8E). This axiom of urban economics says that in real life businesses try to maximize profits by trying to mimic ideal economic model conditions. Firms analyze where to derive profits and wherever profits are found, new businesses with lower prices drive down the prices and the profits for the industry. The result is efficient for consumers, who can buy what they want at optimal prices. Take our hypothetical scenario: you have complete working knowledge of the production of widgets, the market is profitable, and the starting capital was given to you. Therefore, you open your own widget making business. For most people, the answer is easy. Assuming all widgets are created equal, to be competitive in the market, you charge you lower price than your competitors charge. In the wi dget industry where price makes the difference, a competitor might respond by lowering their price as well. You would have no choice but to lower your prices again to remain competitive. Eventually, firms in the widget market will lower price levels to the point where there is no more profit and firms are only covering costs of production. Competition would have created a situation where there is no economic profit and no room for new firms to enter into the marketplace. Why Cities Exist According to the Axioms of Urban Economics Since modern society seems to focus on cities, it may seem strange to the modern Americans that cities actually are very young and a new idea in terms of history. Cities are where we work and live, cities host our governments, and cities are where firms choose to be to do their business. Urban Economics by Arthur OSullivan States cities exist because human technology has created systems of production and exchange that seem to defy the natural order†¦The transformation of a rural society into an urban one occurred because technological advances increased the agricultural surplus, increased the productivity of urban workers, and increased the efficiency of transportation and exchange (Urban Economics, 8E). Recently in history, society has shifted from an agricultural focus to a focus on industrialization. Obviously, we all could not live in cities or there would be no one to raise crops and ranch livestock. According to the first axiom of urbanization, a locational equilibrium has been established by making land cheaper in the country to offset the lower wages of farming and ranching so not everyone will move into the cities. Thus, land and housing would be more expensive the closer you come to the heart of a city to offset the high wages available in the urban setting. According to the second axiom of self-reinforcing effects generating extreme outcomes, industrial firms that produce industrial goods will centralize themselves in the city, and farms and ranches that produce agricultural goods will develop side by side in the countryside. The fifth axiom states that firms will develop near like firms and will do so until there is zero economic profit. This situation means that industrial firms will develop in the city and agricultural firms will develop in the countryside until there is no more profit to be made. The fourth axiom of the scaling effect would allow for specialization in both the countryside and the city. This would set up a comparative advanta ge economy between the countryside and the city where the city can trade their industrial goods for the agricultural goods of the countryside. Cities were born from efficiency, hard work, and ingenuity. Without inventions like the cotton gin or the tractor, Americans might still find themselves living on the farm today. Instead, only 5 percent of the population grows food that feeds the entire country with more to spare; and the rest of us work to produce something worthy of trading for that food or for some other good or service (Urban Economics, 8E). Therefore, cities exist because it is beneficial to produce what you specialize in and use trading firms to lower costs and trade with other cities and areas that may specialize in goods and services desired or needed. Second Essay Starts Marginal costs and benefits are utilized as a form of measurement of costs and benefits at a specific level of production and consumption.Everyday individuals, groups, and institutions make decisions based on our marginal evaluations of the alternatives. They do this by asking questions: â€Å"What will it cost to produce one more unit†, and â€Å"What benefit will be received by acquiring one more unit†? In this essay, the author will define and discuss marginal costs and benefits and their effect on market efficiency in the presence or absence of externalities. What Are Marginal Costs and Marginal Benefits? Marginal benefit is the gain you receive for doing anything one more time (Urban Economics, 8E). Marginal benefit is typically measured in terms of revenue or what price level the free market places on the next unit you produce (Urban Economics, 8E). Imagine you are the proud owner of a widget making shop, and you could sell an unlimited number of widgets for 10 dollars, then your marginal benefit for each additional widget you produced would be 10 dollars. Realistically though, there is a limit on the amount of any item you can sell at a given price. If your market is saturated, to sell another widget you may have to lower your price to 8 dollars. Therefore, your marginal benefit for the next widget you produce will be only 8 dollars. Consumers experience marginal benefits as well, but the value of these benefits are not generally measured by the measurement of revenue. If a customer, values a widget from your store at value laden 20 dollars, based on its perceived value and consumer satisfaction from a purchase of a widget from your shop, then they will buy one. However, once they have one, they will only consider buying a second widget at 20 dollars. If they buy a second widget from your shop, it is based solely on the value-laden perception that the widget’s benefit is worth the 20 dollars. If the consumers do not perceive that the widget has 20 dollars benefit or use, they will not purchase another widget at the 20-dollar price level. Therefore, if your shop wants the consumer to buy widgets, the owner must either lower the price or offer some other promotional benefit. Consumers marginal benefit is also referred to as marginal utility(Urban Economics, 8E). According to the law of diminishing marginal u tility, â€Å"as a person increases consumption of a product, while keeping consumption of other products constant, there is a decline in the marginal utility that person derives from consuming each additional unit of that product† (Urban Economics, 8E). As the marginal benefit for widgets declines among your customer base, so does the price they are willing to pay which in turn affects your marginal benefit as a widget producer. â€Å"Marginal cost is the total cost you incur to produce one more unit† (Urban Economics, 8E). Following the example from the previous paragraph, it is the cost to make one more widget. Since, marginal costs are measured by total cost divided by change in output, marginal cost declines as change in output increases (Urban Economics, 8E). The overhead costs of production gets spread out over the increased change units produced. At some point, though, marginal cost reaches full capacity, and if you want to increase production, you will have to buy more widget machines, hire more employees, keep longer hours, and eventually build another site of production. These changes will increase the total cost for making widgets, so your marginal cost will increase. Now marginal cost is going up while marginal revenue is declining, for reasons already discussed. This situation means you are making less profit for each widget. Market Efficiency without Externalities If there is competition in the market but no significant, the free market result is efficient and benefits both the producer and the buyer (Urban Economics, 8E). It may or may not be fair since it depends on the existing distribution of market ownership (Urban Economics, 8E). This efficiency is achieved because the maximized quantity of output produced by a perfectly competitive firm results in the equality between price and marginal cost (Urban Economics, 8E). The most optimized efficient market without externalities is Perfect completion market. Perfect competition Market is an idealized market structure that achieves an efficient allocation of resources. In the short and long run, this involves the equality between price and marginal cost (Urban Economics, 8E). Market Efficiency with Externalities An externality exists when a third party who is not directly involved in the buying or selling of the goods or service incurs a cost or benefit (Urban Economics, 8E). In other words, an externality arises when a third party to a transaction experiences addition costs which can be either negative or positive due to transactions between buyers and sellers(Urban Economics, 8E). Negative externalities occur when the consumption or production of a good causes a harmful effect to a third party (Urban Economics, 8E). For example, the pollution produced with a sports car, or traffic jams due large number of car owners. If a good has a negative externality, then the cost to society is greater than the cost consumer is paying for it (Urban Economics, 8E). A positive externality exists when the private benefit enjoyed from the production or consumption of goods and services are exceeded by the benefits as a whole to the society. In this scenario, a third party other than the buyer and seller will receive a benefit because of consuming the good (Urban Economics, 8E). An example of positive externalities is the increased value of the neighborhood when you refurbish the outside of your house. Externalities are not usually fully reflected in prices. Externalities are regarded as a form of market failure. The costs and benefits related to externalities are not typically included as part of the decision making process when making market decisions. Negative externalities because too many goods and services are being made available to the market and being consumed at ill efficient amounts (Urban Economics, 8E). Positive externalities cause too little of a good or services to be made available to the market which cause inefficacies in consumption of goods and services by consumers (Urban Economics, 8E). the price for the good and the quantity produced are lower than the market could bear. When positive externalities occur in a free market, consumers pay a lower price for goods and services and consume lesser quantity of those goods and services to socially efficient levels (Urban Economics, 8E). When negative externalities happen in a free market, producers do not pay the additional external costs that exist so the costs are passed on to society (Urban Economics, 8E). Thus, producers have lower marginal costs so more of the products and services are bought than the efficient amount (Urban Economics, 8E). In order to get consumers to consume more of goods and services that have been affected by a positive externality, a government subsidy can be given to the public (Urban Economics, 8E). The subsidy will increase the marginal benefit they receive when they consume the good. All those who receive the external benefits from the consumer goods (Urban Economics, 8E) can pay for the subsidy. The subsidy will increase the marginal benefit they receive when they consume the good and all those who receive benefits from the positive externalities (Urban Economics, 8E) can pay for the subsidy. Negative externalities result in a lower free-market output. In order to make the market produce the optimal amount, we must impose a government regulations or taxes. This is called internalizing the externality, and forces those involved to pay for the negative externalities (Urban Economics, 8E). In conclusion, through this essay the author has learned many things about regulated and unregulated markets. Both have their costs and benefits, and society should be very prudent when entering to the market place because not all the cost is seen.

Saturday, January 18, 2020

Analysis of Priceline

Priceline Inc. is an online travel booking site that helps customers worldwide purchase airfare, hotels, rental cars, and much more. The three categories I chose to analyze are business model and strategies, business finances, and expansion of the company through acquisitions. For Priceline to have success, I believe the business model and how the company builds its model is extremely important. Next, it is crucial that we look at the finances of the company to ensure it is profitable. The finances of the company are tied to the various acquisitions Priceline has acquired in the past few years. By looking at the companies Priceline has acquired, I strongly recommend investing in Priceline based off of the record earnings posted by the company. Not only is Priceline profitable, the corporation also has an unique business strategy to make money. When assigned this paper, I began to use databases and Factiva to search for information about Priceline. I used the information found from da tabases and used them as research to support my report. I then researched Priceline’s marketing techniques as well as stock prices in order to elaborate on the company’s finances. Finally, I learned about the companies Priceline has acquired over the years to expand its market presence. To figure out the formatting and structure of this paper, I used other people’s reports as guidance.IntroductionPriceline’s business model includes value proposition of connecting vendors and customers. It consists of a revenue model where there are transaction fees and spread earned by the company between vendor and customer price. Launched in 1998, Priceline Inc. does not directly supply travel services, but rather they bring buyers and sellers together to complete a transaction. Priceline saves consumers money by trading travel flexibility of brands and product features for sellers’ lower prices. Business Model and StrategiesEver since the development of the inte rnet, dot-com companies have been booming left and right. One of those companies founded during the dot-com boom was Priceline Inc., an online travel booking site that revolutionized the way consumers purchased air tickets, hotel rooms, rental cars, and much more. Priceline Inc. developed and innovated a new system of â€Å"Name your own  price† for customers to finalize their travels. They were able to turn excess inventory otherwise not sold by the airlines to consumers while at the same time price discriminate in order to maximize profits. In the airline industry, it is estimated that only 65% of the seats on a plane are occupied on a daily basis.Airlines definitely were looking a way to vend the rest of the inventory. However, they could not advertise these excess seats with special discount because in doing so, it would destroy its retail fare structure. Priceline was the solution to this as they are able to help shield airlines branding in two different ways. First, w hen consumers try to name your own price on Priceline, they must choose travels between two cities. In this case, the airlines’ branding and product configurations are protected as customers have no idea which airline they will be selecting. Only after a bid is accepted will they learn their exact flight information and itinerary. Secondly, Priceline protects those who are considered free riders. These are people who would receive the benefit of a discount but they are already willing to pay for an air ticket at a higher price (Eisenmann 47-48). Name Your Price GuaranteeFigure 1.1Source: (Priceline.com) Revenue Generation: Priceline is able to effectively generate revenue one of two ways. First, it calculates a spread between the lowest prices offered by the Airline partner and the highest prices a customer is willing to pay. In this scenario, neither party the airline partner nor the customer have the option of knowing the asking price or the bid price. A customer has no ide a what unpublished rate the airline is offering. Only Priceline would have this secret information. On the other hand, the airline does not get to see how much the consumers bid on the air ticket. For example, if a customer bids $300 on a ticket from LAX to JFK and the lowest unpublished rate for any given airline is $200, then the spread would be $100, which Priceline retains as its earnings. As seen from this model, profiting from the spread is highly successful given the economies of scale from customers (Eisenmann 47-48). Adaptive Marketing and Cross Subsidy:Furthermore, Priceline also offers consumers to bump up their bids by participating in â€Å"adaptive marketing† and â€Å"cross-subsidy† promotional programs. For instance, Priceline could add $50 to an existing $100 bid to make it more likely that a ticket will be sold if one signs up for a credit card. If that is the case, the credit card company may pay Priceline $75 for every referral that signs up for the card. In this case, Priceline would simply pocket the difference. If the asking price for the ticket was already under $100, then Priceline would keep all of the money coming from credit card sponsorship (Eisenmann 48).Business Finances Early Stages of Priceline: At the beginning of year 2000, Priceline had a market share of 3% of all airline tickets sold in the U.S. Attracting over 3.8 million unique visitors, Priceline sold tickets for all eight domestic airlines as well as 20 international carriers. One year after its establishment in 1998, Priceline’s revenue was $482 Million in 1999 and $1 Billion in 2000 (Eisenmann 48).However, the dot-com bubble would halt Priceline’s success only temporarily. 1999 was a tough year for Priceline as it stated a $1.1 Billion loss on its financial statement. Stock prices plunged from $974 to $7 a share. According to Walker, â€Å"there was a credibility issue† within the organization and investors did not completely trust t he dot-com industry. Priceline’s financials would improve slowly. In 2002, Priceline reported a net loss of $19 Million. When CEO Jeff Boyd took over the company in 2002, Priceline stocks had suffered one of the worst drops in its brief history. But soon enough, Priceline was able to make a turnaround when it introduced William Shatner as the negotiator character out of the blue to help consumers save money. Instantaneously, people remembered the advertisements put up by Priceline and associated with Shatner, a former Star-Trek star’s self-parody. William ShatnerFigure 1.2Source: (Thepenaltyflagblog.com) From Loss to Profit: Priceline started making a profit in 2003, but it wasn’t until 2004 and 2005 when Boyd bought two European hotel reservation sites—the U.K.'s Active Hotels and Amsterdam-based Booking.com that Priceline hit a turning point. â€Å"Priceline's earnings growth and stock market success since then have been attributable largely to those t wo acquisitions—Booking.com in particular. It would be tough to argue that there's been a better acquisition in Internet history,† says Thomas White, an analyst at Macquarie Securities. â€Å"It's why the stock has been such a home run,† says White.Thomas White and Barclays' DiClemente would agree that investors lack the knowledge that most of the revenue come from overseas. Since Europeans have many more vacation days as Americans, it is not surprising that more revenue is inflowing from Europe. Jeff Boyd, the CEO of Priceline, was smart about targeting such a market in Europe. â€Å"Moreover, the growth of discount airlines in Europe such as EasyJet and Ryanair have increased the popularity of â€Å"city breaks†Ã¢â‚¬â€the European equivalent of a weekend getaway,† states Birger. Earnings Report in 2012:In 2012, Priceline continued to post better than expected earnings reports. In the third quarter of 2012, Priceline reported third quarter revenue s of $1.71 Billion, up 17.4% from a year ago in 2011. Also, Priceline beat the estimate of $1.65 Billion projected revenue determined previously by analysts. Non-GAAP profits stood at $12.40 a share, ahead of the estimate of $11.81 a share. Gross bookings came in at $7.8 billion, elevated 25.2% from a year ago. For quarter four in 2012, Eric Savitz of Forbes magazine states â€Å"Priceline projected revenues to be up 21-28% or 22%-29% in local currency; revenues are expected to improve 15%-22%, with non-GAAP profits of $6.12 to $6.57 a share. Consensus has been for $6.34 a share.†Continuous Growth: In the mean time, CEO Jeff Boyd continues to have high hopes for Priceline. â€Å"Globally our hotel business grew room nights by 36% over the same period last year, compared to 39% growth in the second quarter,† he said. â€Å"Our rental car business grew rental car days by 35% over last year, an acceleration from 29% in the second quarter, led by improving results at Pric eline.com and continued strong growth from Rentalcars.com. While we remain concerned about economic weakness across Europe, Asia and the U.S., the [company] intends to focus on solidifying its position as the world's largest and most profitable online hotel reservation service by continuing to add hotels and other accommodations and better servicing our customers through constant innovation in our mobile and desktop sites.†As promised by Boyd, Priceline continued to show tremendous growth. On November 1st, 2012, Priceline stock was up $12.22 in regular session trading and jumped another $52 a share in after-hours trading to close at $638.95 (Savitz). Since then, Priceline sustains its momentum by reporting record earnings in the preceding quarters. Today, stock price for Priceline is even higher than few years ago. It currently trades at over $1,000 a share and constantly out competes against their rivals Expedia and Orbitz (Birger).10 Year Graph of Priceline (PCLN) Figure 1.3 Source: (Yahoo Finance) Acquisitions and Expansions Booking.com: Priceline is on track to make a very good move because it is believed that the online travel reservation market still has room for expansion in Europe. Priceline typically takes 15% of every transaction done on Booking.com; in return, the hotels have a much better chance to market and advertise to potential customers. After Priceline’s acquisition of Booking.com in July 2005 for $135 Million, its profits skyrocketed from $10 million in 2003 to $1.1 billion in 2011. No other acquisition has proven to be that successful in the 2000’s (O'Neill). Agoda and TraveljigSaw:In addition, Priceline is increasing its brand in Asia via its Agoda brand and it is growing its rental cars division as well, aided by a 2010 acquisition of global car-rental site TravelJigsaw. Ever since these acquisitions of smaller travel companies, Priceline is able to expand its market cap while its stock prices surged over 500% in the fo llowing five years (Birger). Kayak:In 2012, Priceline Inc. continues its acquisition practice with the purchase of Kayak for $1.8 Billion. Shareholders of Kayak received $40 per share. Kayak is successful in that it raised $91 Million in the July 2012 IPO through selling of 3.5 Million shares at $26 apiece. It has processed 302 million queries across its web. Kayak and Priceline are â€Å"two of the largest online-travel companies and it makes sense that these two companies would want to work together, of course, because they do have different strengths and different objectives,† said Dan Marcec, an analyst at Emarketer. With the acquisition of Kayak, Jeff Boyd states that â€Å"Priceline’s intention is for Kayak to be operated independently under the leadership of existing management, as with our other hands, with a primary focus on building value for its customers and advertising partners† (Levy).Conclusion Priceline Inc. operates as one of the biggest travel booking sites in the world. Its global presence in Europe and Asia as well in the Americas cannot be ignored. Priceline Inc. should be a company that is to be heavily invested in because of its revenue and profit posted by the corporation. Its record breaking earnings in the billions should easily attract the eyes of a savvy investor. Priceline will continue to post earnings through the way it does business by matching consumers with vendors and earning the difference in prices. With its continuous acquisitions of smaller booking sites, Priceline is set on par to be the dominant and primary go to website when it comes to travel bookings. Without a doubt, its stock prices will continue to soar as it expands its presence in Asia.

Friday, January 10, 2020

Childhood and Adolescent Depression and the Risks of Suicide Essay

Introduction Problem and its Background   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   One of the most common reasons for referral of children and adolescents to mental health professionals is suspected depression. There are continues debate as to whether childhood and adolescent depression are a reflection of normal variation in mood. It is reasonable for the primary care physician to view childhood depression as a constellation of factors that forms a syndrome. This constellation consists of a persistent mood disorder and dysfunctional behavior that intrudes and distorts the child’s day-to-day activities (Gottlieb & Williams, 1991 p.1). A firm denial gave way into a general and strong conviction about significance of depressive syndromes in childhood and adolescents, and of the implications throughout the life course. The realization of the problem occurrence made it possible for the therapeutic interventions and prevention programs to be developed and set up for depressive children, and to have these programs sponsored and evaluated on a scientific perspective. Various factors have facilitated the progression of this study concerning the recognition of childhood depression. Society is approached with enormous cost of untreated childhood depression later on in life (Corveleyn etal, 2005 p.165).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The concept of a depressive syndrome that is distinct from the broad class of childhood onset emotional disorders has been linked to incidence of suicidal rates worldwide. The condition of such incidence is becoming evidently alarming as the number of suicidal rate continue.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The treatment of such depressive states range from pharmacologic drugs up to psychological modifications and therapies, such as behavioral, peer and group focused groups, etc. With the serious nature of childhood / adolescent depression, it is crucial that treatments with known efficacy and more than transitory effects be provided promptly and skillfully (Maj & Sartorius, 2002 p.292). Scope and Limitations   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The treatment procedures and the condition of health care management for the case of childhood and adolescent depression are the primary subjects of the study. The concept on treatment procedure involves the pharmacologic, medical and psychological interventions that are absolutely necessary in the health care management of such condition. The study shall cover the discussion of depressive condition of the childhood and adolescent age group. Diagnostic procedures and issues shall be tackled in this research in order to portray possible conflicts and difficulties that occur in diagnosing the condition. The neurobiology of the depressive state shall be elaborated utilizing psychophysiology of the disorder, and linked to probable external physiological occurrences. Lastly, since the study focuses on therapy and medication as treatment modalities, the following methods and means of treatment shall be involved in the study. The following shall be the objectives of the over-all study. To be able to define, discuss and elaborate the conditions involved in the occurrence of depression in adolescent and childhood stages To be able to provide and tackle the treatment procedure as the center scope of study, accompanied by the issues, physiology and specific drugs involved in depression health care management. Discussion   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Cases of despondency and depression in children and adolescents were reported as early as the seventeenth century. Prior to the 1970s, however, little attention was paid to depression in youth (Hersen & Hasselt, 2001 p.243). The study on depression had been more inclined to adulthood depression and not on childhood and adolescence.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Depression among children and adolescents is relatively common, enduring, and recurrent disorder that has an adverse impact on a youngster’s psychosocial development and in some cases is associated with self-destructive and life-threatening behaviors. Depressive disorders during childhood and adolescence may be more virulent and of longer duration than depressive disorders in adults. Depressive disorders during childhood are a risk factor for the development of additional psychological disturbances and for the development of depressive disorders later in life. The number of youths who are experiencing depressive disorders is increasing at the same time that the age of onset is decreasing (Mash & Barkley, 2006 p.336).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Depression can be conceptualized both as a dimension and as a category. Epidemiological studies suggest that juvenile depression is a continuum that is associated with problems at most levels of severity. According to Oregon Adolescent Depression Project, the level of psychosocial impairment increased as a direct function of the number of depressive symptoms. Moreover, in line with studies of adults, much of the morbidity associated with depression occurred in the â€Å"milder† but more numerous cases of minor depression. Such results suggest that even mild forms of adolescent depression are a risk factor for depression in early adulthood (Rutter & Taylor, 2002 p.463).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In recent years, increased attention has been given to evidence-based psychosocial and pharmacological interventions for depressed youth. The need to highlight what we know about treatment is underscored by the fact that most depressed youth do not receive treatment. However, as knowledge about treatments for youth depression has increased, the rate of treatment appears to have developed. Although depression among youth is treated more often, it is not clear that standard practice is effective at alleviating depressive symptoms or preventing recurrence. Moreover, there is a bias toward the utilization of pharmacologic drugs and extremely brief psychosocial interventions (Gotlib & Hammen, 2002 p.441). Diagnostic Issues involved in Depression   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fourth edition, text revision groups mood disorders into two categories: depressive disorders and bipolar disorders. Both types of disorders are characterized by depressive episodes. For a diagnosis of depressive disorder, the child must be experiencing a mood disturbance for a period of at least 2 weeks, and the symptoms must be present more often than not. At least four of the following symptoms must be present during the same period (Mash & Barkley, 2006 p.337): Significant, unintentional weight gain or loss Insomnia or hypersomnia Psychomotor retardation or agitation fatigue or loss or energy feelings of worthlessness or extreme guilt Diminished concentration pr ability to make decisions Recurring thoughts of death, suicidality, or suicide attempts In depressed preadolescents and adolescents, a lack of perceived personal competence was associated with depression; however, in adolescents, the more abstract concept of contingencies is also related to depression (Mash & Barkley, 2006 p.338). Confusion sometimes arises in the childhood depression field, as it does with adult depression, because of different usages of the term â€Å"depression† and associated differences in methods of assessment. Moreover, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, which is the primary reference of psychiatric diagnosis, frequently changes. One example is in studies of childhood and adolescent depression, the term is variously used to identify depressed mood, a constellation of mood and other symptoms forming a syndrome, or a set of symptoms meeting official diagnostic criteria for depressive disorder. The usage of such term connotes various meaning, such as depression as a symptoms (lonely, fear impulses, guilt, etc.) and depression as a syndrome (comprises clusters of various signs and symptoms) (Mash & Barkley, 2003 p.336). Neurobiology of Childhood & Adolescent Depression   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Biologic studies in children are difficult to implement since they often require several blood draws, subjects remaining still more long periods of time, and the overall cooperation of the children and adolescents. Three types of investigation have provided information on possible developmental differences in the neurobiology of depression. The first is the study of Cortisol secretion, measured by investigations such as the dexamethasone suppression test (Rapoport, 2000 p.230).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Studies of neurotransmitters in depressed adults have focused on norepinephrine, serotonin, and acetylcholine. Serotonin regulation studied in adults with depression reported that in response to L-5hyroxytrytophan in 37 pre-pubertal depressed children secreted less Cortisol and more prolactin than age-matched and gender-matched normal controls, suggesting a deregulation of central serotonergic systems in childhood depression.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Abnormalities of the hypothalamic pituitary-thyroid axis and the hypothalamic pituitary-growth hormone axis have been reported in depression in adults. However, Cortisol hypersecretion, as measured by repeated samples over a 24-hour period or by nocturnal sampling, has not been identified in depressed children and adolescents although adolescent showed a Cortisol elevation at the approximate time of sleep onset (Coffey, 2006 p.266).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The second type of developmentally informative investigation is the study of sleep. Polysomnographic studies of depressed children and adolescent have tended to demonstrate abnormalities of sleep, including shortened rapid eye movement (REM) latency and reduced slow wave sleep. These generally positive results of polysomnographic studies with children have shown few differences (Rapoport, 2000 p.231).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The third type of developmentally informative investigation is the study of growth hormone. A variety of pharmacological challenge agents that stimulate release of growth hormone have been studied in depressed adolescents and children. Interestingly, the results with adolescents have been negative in terms of slow blunted growth hormone response to provocative stimuli. However, some studies have reported high levels of growth hormone in adolescents with major depression. Moreover, pubertal children both during depressive episode and after recovery have demonstrated blunted growth hormone response to provocative stimuli (Rapoport, 2000 p.231). Psychopharmacology: Antidepressants (SSRIs)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Special considerations arise in treating children and adolescents with antidepressants. Empirical data on antidepressants in young patients are quite limited. Psychiatrists, faced with depriving children of potentially effective medication or prescribing medication or prescribing medications â€Å"Off Label,† need information on which to base treatment decisions, and efforts are underway to promote research in this area. Clinically significant differences in pharmacokinetics and possibly pharmacodynamics between adults and younger patients can also complicate treatment. Moreover, younger patients may also be more sensitive to adverse effects of medications (Preskorn, 2004 p.356).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The antidepressant drugs are a heterogeneous group of compounds that, in adults, have bee found to be effective in the treatment of major depressive disorder. This particular pharmacologic intervention is also utilized in adolescent and children with major depression; although, there have been no studies that validate the appropriateness of such medications. The following are considered as the major treatment of adolescent depression, specifically Tricyclic Antidepressants and (SSRI) Selective-serotonin reuptake inhibitors (Rossenberg & Ryan, 1998 p.28).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) have long been the first-line antidepressants used by most clinicians for adults because of their established efficacy, safety, and ease of administration, but they have been less successful in the treatment of child and adolescent conditions. The mechanism by which TCAs are effective in the treatment of adult depression and other disorders has not been clearly established. There is, however, evidence that these agents affect monoamine neurotransmitter systems in the central; nervous system, such as serotonin and norepinephrine (Rossenberg & Ryan, 1998 p.28-29). The TCAs inhibit the reuptake of norepinephrine and serotonin, potentiating their action. It has been suggested that antidepressants work by increasing noradrenergic and/or serotonergic transmission, compensating for a presumed deficiency. Controlled studies failed to demonstrate that TCAs are superior to placebo in the treatment of childhood and adolescent depression (Rossenberg & Ryan, 1998 p.28-29).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Since serotonin is also implicated in the etiology and maintenance of affective disorders, particularly depression; hence, the use selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRIs) is possible. SSRIs prevent the re-uptake of serotonin, which poses significant therapeutic value although has been shown to be less effective in therapeutic trials in children (Mash & Barkley, 2006 p.384). The SSRIs are now first-line agents for treating child and adolescent depression. The newer antidepressants, such as bupropion and mirtazapine, do not have an adequate empirical base with children; however, they are sometimes used as second-line treatments for those youths who do not respond to SSRIs. Thus far, none of the SSRIs has produced irreversible damage in children and adolescents. However, as the SSRIs gained wide use with depressed adolescents, concerns emerged about the safety of this class of medications. Reports suggested that they were responsible for increased suicidal ideation and behavior among youths (Mash & Barkley, 2006 p.384). In 2003, the British Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency   (MHRA) concluded that most of the SSRIs do not show benefits exceeding their risks of suicidal ideation, and thus should not be prescribed in the child and adolescent population (Mash & Barkley, 2006 p.384).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   If the adolescent fails to respond to any SSRI, then switching to a different class of antidepressant is recommended. At present, no data support the use of one agent over another. Therefore, whether the clinician chooses a TCA, nefazodone, or venlafaxine should be based on clinical experience. Other factors to consider for a given adolescent are medication side effects, medical conditions, previous medication trials, comorbid psychiatric conditions, and familial history of a positive response to particular antidepressants (Esman, 1999 p.222). Other classes of antidepressants are fluoxetine, setraline, paroxetine, fluvoxamine, venlafaxine, bupropion, trazodone, and nefazadone. As major depression has a high recurrence rate, it is recommended that pharmacologic treatment continue for a minimum of six months achieving resolution of symptoms. Medication discontinuation should be accomplished gradually, with a slow, stepwise reduction in dosage over a two- or three-month period. The health care providers should carefully monitor the adolescent for withdrawal syndromes and reemergence of depressive symptoms (Esman, 1999 p.222). Relationship to Suicide Rates   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Suicidal thoughts and attempts are among the diagnostic criteria for major depression. Suicidal ideation is quite common, and has been reported in more than 60% of depressed preschoolers, preadolescents, and adolescents. Actual suicidal attempts also may occur, at rates that appear to be higher among depressed adolescents than among depressed adults (Mash & Barkley, 2003 p.336).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Studies have shown consistently high rates of comorbid psychiatric disorders in depressed children and adolescents. The comorbidity rate in children and adolescents with depression has been reported to be 80% to 95%. The most common comorbid disorders in adolescents with depression are anxiety disorders, with rates ranging from 40% to 50%. Moreover, substance abuse frequently co-occurs with depression. Adolescents with major depression are at risk for impairment in school performance and interpersonal relationships, which may interfere with achievement of appropriate developmental tasks. Suicidal behavior is a common sequela. A 10-yar follow-up of depressed child and adolescent outpatients found that 4.4% committed suicide. Mood disorder, prior to suicide attempt, and substance abuse are major risk factors for adolescent suicide (Esman, 1999 p.216).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Depressed and suicidal children and adolescents are often not identified. Identification of children and adolescents who express suicidal ideation or suicidal acts is crucial since such symptoms are recurrent and strong predictors of youth suicide. Other risk factors for youth suicide behavior have been described including family, other environmental and biological factors. Notably, family history of suicidal behavior increases risk for youth suicide (Rapoport, 2000 p.231). Reference Coffey, E. C. (2006). Pediatric Neuropsychiatry. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Corveleyn etal, J. (2005). The Theory and Treatment of Depression: Towards a Dynamic Interactionism Model. Routledge. Esman, A. H. (1999). Adolescent Psychiatry: Developmental and Clinical Studies. Routledge. Gotlib, I., & Hammen, C. L. (2002). Handbook of Depression. Guilford Press. Gottlieb, M. I., & Williams, J. (1991). Developmental-behavioral Disorders: Selected Topics. Springer. Hersen, M., & Hasselt, V. B. (2001). Advanced Abnormal Psychology. Springer. Maj, M., & Sartorius, N. (2002). Depressive Disorders. John Wiley and Sons. Mash, E. J., & Barkley, R. A. (2006). Child Psychopathology. Guilford Press. Mash, E. J., & Barkley, R. A. (2006). Treatment of Childhood Disorders. Guilford Press. Preskorn, S. (2004). Antidepressants: Past, Present, and Future. Springer. Rapoport, J. L. (2000). Childhood Onset of â€Å"Adult† Psychopathology: Clinical and Research Advances. American Psychiatric Pub., Inc. Rossenber, D., & Ryan, N. (1998). Pocket Guide for the Textbook of Pharmacotherapy for Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Disorders. Psychology Press. Rutter, M., & Taylor, E. A. (2002). Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. Blackwell Publishing.

Thursday, January 2, 2020

The Stains of Watergate - 1568 Words

On June 17, 1972, security guard Frank Wills became a national hero. At twenty four years old, he was working the midnight shift at the Democratic National Committee (DNC) headquarters at the Watergate complex in Washington, D.C. He discovered tape over a basement door lock and thinking none of it, he removed the tape. On another inspection round, he found the lock taped over again and called the police. They locked the doors, turned off the elevators, and started checking darkened offices. At 2:30 a.m. on the 6th floor of the Watergate complex, the police discovered five men who were identified as the Plumbers Unit on orders by The Committee to Re-elect the President (CREEP) to burglarize the DNC. The men, one who was an ex-CIA agent, were convicted of conspiracy, burglary, and illegal wiretapping. However, what started as a third-rate burglary unravelled into a broad network of political corruption and espionage within the Nixon administration that became known as Watergate. Before the summer of 1972, the term â€Å"Watergate† meant nothing more than a luxurious complex in Washington, D.C., but because five highly cunning men were somehow caught by an average, $80-per-week security guard, it became associated with the greatest political scandal of the century and many more after that. The Watergate scandal proliferated public skepticism of and mistrust in the federal government, and an angry American public called for immediate response. The widespread public mistrust andShow MoreRelatedThe Stains of Watergate1352 Words   |  5 Pagesdue to the exposure of the Nixon administration’s corrupt activities in addition to the President’s graceless resignation, the public and the news media scrutinized the backgrounds of people who sought power more carefully. A positive outcome of Watergate was the successful national movement for government transparency: to make meetings and records more accessible to the public. In 1974, Congress overrode a presidential veto and revised the Freedom of Information act, providing the public and mediaRead MoreThe Resignation of President Richard Nixon Essay1371 Words   |  6 PagesLegal Brief/Background During the year of 1972, a case submerged that shook the United State Supreme Court, as well as the world. Five intruders were caught breaking and entering into the Democratic National Headquarters in the Watergate Hotel in Washington, D.C. The Democratic National Headquarters were responsible for various things, but one key aspect of their job was to raise money and organize campaigns for Democratic candidates, including the presidential candidate, George McGovern. SoonRead MorePresident Nixon And The Watergate Scandal1641 Words   |  7 Pagesdisregarded the Constitution and the oath of office of the President of the United States. President Nixon is most famous for his involvement in the infamous Watergate scandal, which took place on June 17th, 1972 (Timeline). Nixon hired six burglars to break into the Democratic National Committee’s offices, which were located inside the Watergate office, complex in Washington. The burglars’ mission was to plant audio transmitt ers, but they were arrested after being discovered by an on duty watchmanRead MoreMusic And Its Impact On Society1340 Words   |  6 Pagesculture. Individuality, self-expression and the need for political reform were emphasized in concerts such as Woodstock. During the late 1960s and early 1970s, the intertwining of music as an expression of people’s disapproval of the Vietnam War and Watergate, shaped James Murray into the musically oriented and political cautious man he is today. James’s adult life began during a period of powerful change, where the youth of America began questioning parts of their country that society accepted. ManyRead MoreEssay about Past Political Controversies2078 Words   |  9 Pageshistory that show the need for ethical political leaders in our government, and why that would benefit society. Past Political Controversies: The Watergate Scandal The Watergate Scandal is an infamous controversy that provides insight into the corruption and operation of the President, Congress, or the Supreme Court. The term â€Å"Watergate† is used to describe the complex and tight-woven web of political scandals that occurred during President Nixon’s presidency between 1972 and 1974. The termRead MoreEssay on World Phone Hacking Scandal2506 Words   |  11 Pagesposition while an act deontologist would have straight up said no to any thought of unethical behavior. Perhaps if Murdoch and those below him had acted in a more deontological manner, the News of the World would still be open and there would not be a stain on the Murdoch brand name. If given the choice of how to obtain information and sources in Rupert Murdoch’s position, I would take the deontological route. I believe every person has the basic right of privacy and that personal information should