Essay on Taxation and Records

Essay on Taxation and Records Essay on Taxation and Records A general guide to keeping records for your tax return RK BK1 Contents Introduction 3 Why good record keeping helps you 3 Records you should keep 4 How long to keep your records 4 If you keep your records on computer 5 What you should do if your records are lost or destroyed 5 11 3 What happens if you don’t keep adequate records If you run a business or work for yourself Examples of the types of records you will need to keep 5 If you claim personal allowances, other deductions or reliefs If you are an employee, a director, or an office holder If you receive any form of social security benefits or a UK pension 5 6 Common points of difficulty 14 Motor vehicles and other assets used for business and private purposes 14 Claiming losses for capital gains purposes – time limits 14 Examples of records recommended for different types of business 15 Retail shop 15 Subcontractors in the construction industry 16 Manufacturing firm (limited company) 17 9 More information 18 If you receive interest, dividends or other income from UK savings, annuity investments or trusts 9 Your rights and obligations 19 If you are in a share scheme or receive share-related benefits 9 Putting things right 19 If you have other income in the UK or foreign income or gains 10 If you have capital gains or claim capital losses 10 We have a range of services for people with disabilities, including guidance in Braille, audio and large print. Most of our products are also available in large print. Please contact us on any of our phone helplines if you need these services. 2 Introduction This guide gives you general advice about what records you need to keep for tax purposes and how long to keep them. It gives some examples of typical records you may need if you’re: completing a Self Assessment tax return making a claim, for example, for tax allowances or tax credits keeping business records employing others completing a Company Tax Return. Why good record keeping helps you Whatever records you keep, it makes sense to organise and keep them in an orderly fashion. This will help you and your accountant (if you have one) as well as us, if we need to ask you anything. If you’re starting a business, help keep it on the right track by keeping good records from the beginning and you’ll find it easier to keep your affairs up to date. Records you should keep You should keep any records and documents that you have received, or have prepared, that will be used to complete entries in your Self Assessment or Company Tax Return, or your claim form if you’re claiming benefits or allowances. Most of these records will be from the tax year or accounting period to which they relate, or soon afterwards. However, you will sometimes need to refer to records that are already several years old. For example, if you dispose of an asset (such as land, shares or a valuable chattel, for instance a painting) that you have owned for a long time, you may need to have older records to calculate a capital gain or loss – read If you have capital gains or claim capital losses on page 10 of this guide, or go to www.hmrc.gov.uk/cgt/intro/record-keeping.htm The need to refer to old records can arise in other circumstances, so please bear this in mind as you read this booklet. You may have already discarded any records relating to events that happened before April 1996, as there was previously no obligation to keep them. It does not matter if you have not kept such items, but you should hold on to any such records that you still have and which may be relevant in future. For more information on record keeping for companies, go to www.hmrc.gov.uk/ct/managing/record-keeping.htm 3 What happens if you don’t keep adequate records If we need to check your tax return for any

War of 1812 - Early Campaigns

War of 1812 - Early Campaigns Causes of the War of 1812 | War of 1812: 101 | 1813: Success on Lake Erie, Indecisiveness Elsewhere To Canada With the declaration of war in June 1812, planning began in Washington to strike north against British-held Canada. The prevailing thought in much of the United States was that the capture of Canada would be a simple and swift operation. This was supported by the fact the US possessed a population of around 7.5 million while Canadas numbered only 500,000. Of this smaller number, a large percentage was Americans who had moved north as well as the French population of Quebec. It was believed by the Madison Administration that many from these two groups would flock to the American flag once troops crossed the border. Indeed, former President Thomas Jefferson believed that securing Canada was a simple matter of marching. Despite these optimistic prognostications, the US military lacked the command structure to effectively execute an invasion. The small War Department, led by Secretary of War William Eustis, consisted of only eleven junior clerks. In addition, there was no clear scheme for how regular officers were to interact with their militia counterparts and whose rank took precedence. In determining a strategy for moving forward, most were in agreement that severing the St. Lawrence River would lead to the capitulation of Upper Canada (Ontario). The ideal method for achieving this was through the capture of Quebec. This idea was ultimately discarded as the city was heavily fortified and many remembered the failed campaign to take the city in 1775. In addition, any movement against Quebec would need to be launched from New England where support for the war was particularly weak. Instead, President James Madison elected to approve a plan put forward by Major General Henry Dearborn. This called for a three-prong attack north with one moving up the Lake Champlain corridor to take Montreal while another advanced into Upper Canada by crossing the Niagara River between Lakes Ontario and Erie. A third thrust was to come in the west where American troops would advance east into Upper Canada from Detroit. This plan had the added advantage of having two offensives depart from strong War Hawk territory which was expected to be a strong source of troops. The hope was to have all three attacks commence at the same time with the goal of stretching the small number of British troops stationed in Canada. This coordination failed to occur (Map). Disaster at Detroit The troops for the westernmost offensive were in motion prior to the declaration of war. Departing from Urbana, OH, Brigadier General William Hull moved north towards Detroit with around 2,000 men. Reaching the Maumee River, he encountered the schooner Cuyahoga. Embarking his sick and wounded, Hull dispatched the schooner across Lake Erie to Detroit. Against the wishes of his staff who feared the ships capture as it passed British Fort Malden, Hull had also placed the complete records of his army on board. By the time his force reached Detroit on July 5, he had learned that war had been declared. He also was informed that Cuyahoga had been captured. Hulls captured papers were forwarded to Major General Isaac Brock who was in command of British forces in Upper Canada. Undeterred, Hull crossed the Detroit River and issued a pompous declaration informing the people of Canada that they were free from British oppression. Pressing down the east bank, he reached Fort Malden, but despite having a large numerical advantage, did not assault it. Problems soon arose for Hull when the anticipated support from the Canadian people failed to materialize and 200 of his Ohio militia refused to cross the river into Canada stating they would only fight on American territory. Growing concerned about his extended supply lines back to Ohio, he dispatched a force under Major Thomas Van Horn to meet a wagon train near the River Raisin. Moving south, they were attacked and driven back to Detroit by Native American warriors directed by the feared Shawnee leader Tecumseh. Compounding these difficulties, Hull soon learned that Fort Mackinac had surrendered on July 17. The loss of the fort gave the British control of the upper Great Lakes. As a result, he ordered the immediate evacuation of Fort Dearborn on Lake Michigan. Departing on August 15, the retreating garrison was quickly attacked by Native Americans led by the Pota watomi chief Black Bird and took heavy losses. Believing his situation to be grave, Hull withdrew back across the Detroit River on August 8 amid rumors that Brock was advancing with a large force. The maneuver led to many of the militia leaders to ask for Hulls removal. Advancing to the Detroit River with 1,300 men (including 600 Native Americans), Brock utilized several ruses to convince Hull that his force was much larger. Holding his larger command at Fort Detroit, Hull remained inactive as Brock began a bombardment from the east bank of the river. On August 15, Brock called for Hull to surrender and implied that if the Americans declined and a battle resulted, he would not be able to control Tecumsehs men. Hull refused this demand but was shaken by the threat. The following day, after a shell hit the officers mess, Hull, without consulting his officers, surrendered Fort Detroit and 2,493 men without a fight. In one quick campaign, the British had effectively destroyed the American defenses in the Northwest. The only victory o ccurred when young Captain Zachary Taylor succeeded in holding Fort Harrison on the night of September 4/5. Causes of the War of 1812 | War of 1812: 101 | 1813: Success on Lake Erie, Indecisiveness Elsewhere Causes of the War of 1812 | War of 1812: 101 | 1813: Success on Lake Erie, Indecisiveness Elsewhere Twisting the Lions Tail When the war began in June 1812, the fledgling US Navy possessed fewer then twenty-five ships, the largest being frigates. Opposing this small force was the Royal Navy which consisted of over a thousand ships manned by over 151,000 men. Lacking the ships of the line required for fleet actions, the US Navy embarked on a campaign of guerre de course while engaging British warships when practical. To support the US Navy, hundreds of letters of marque were issued to American privateers with the goal of crippling British commerce. With news of the defeats on the frontier, the Madison Administration looked to the sea for positive results. The first of these occurred on August 19, when Captain Isaac Hull, nephew of the disgraced general, took USS Constitution (44 guns) into battle against HMS Guerriere (38). After a sharp fight, Hull proved victorious and Captain James Dacres was forced to surrender his ship. As the battle raged, several of Guerrieres cannonballs bounced off of Constitutions thick live oak planking giving the ship the nickname Old Ironsides. Returning to Boston, Hull was feted as a hero. This success was soon followed on October 25 when Captain Stephen Decatur and USS United States (44) captured HMS Macedonian (38). Returning to New York with his prize, Macedonian was bought into the US Navy and Decatur joined Hull as a national hero. Though the US Navy endured the loss of the sloop-of-war USS Wasp (18) in October when it was taken by HMS Poictiers (74) after successful a action against HMS Frolic (18), the year ended on a high note. With Hull on leave, USS Constitution sailed south under the command of Captain William Bainbridge. On December 29, he encountered HMS Java (38) off the Brazilian coast. Though he was carrying the new governor of India, Captain Henry Lambert moved to engage Constitution. As the fighting raged, Bainbridge dismasted his opponent and compelled Lambert to surrender. Though of little strategic importance, the three frigate victories boosted the confidence of the young US Navy and lifted the publics flagging spirits. Stunned by the defeats, the Royal Navy understood the American frigates to be bigger and stronger than their own. As a result, orders were issued that British frigates should seek to avoid single ship actions with their American counterparts. Efforts were also made to keep the e nemy ships in port by tightening the British blockade of the American coast. All Wrong Along the Niagara Onshore, the events in the field continued to go against the Americans. Assigned to command the attack on Montreal, Dearborn dallied most of the fall raising troops and failed to cross the border by years end. Along the Niagara, efforts moved forward, but slowly. Returning to Niagara from his success at Detroit, Brock found that his superior, Lieutenant General Sir George Prevost had ordered British forces to adopt a defensive posture in the hopes that the conflict could be settled diplomatically. As a result, an armistice was in place along the Niagara which allowed American Major General Stephen van Rensselaer to receive reinforcements. A major general in the New York militia, van Rensselaer was a popular Federalist politician who had been appointed to command the American army for politic purposes. As such, several regular officers, such as Brigadier General Alexander Smyth, commanding at Buffalo, had issues with taking orders from him. With the end of the armistice on September 8, Van Rensselaer began making plans to cross the Niagara River from his base at Lewiston, NY to capture the village of Queenston and the nearby heights. To support this effort, Smyth was ordered to cross and attack Fort George. After receiving only silence from Smyth, van Rensselaer sent additional orders demanding that he bring his men to Lewiston for a combined assault on October 11. Though van Rensselaer was ready to strike, severe weather led to the effort being postponed and Smyth returned to Buffalo with his men after being delayed en route. Having spotted this failed attempt and received reports that the Americans might attack, Brock issued orders for the local militias to begin forming. Outnumbered, the British commanders forces were also scattered along length of the Niagara frontier. With the weather clearing, van Rensselaer elected to make a second attempt on October 13. Efforts to add Smyths 1,700 men failed when he informed van Rensselaer that he could not arrive until the 14th. Crossing the river on October 13, the lead elements of van Rensselaers army achieved some success during the early parts of the Battle of Queenston Heights. Reaching the battlefield, Brock led a counterattack against the American lines and was killed. With additional British forces moving to the scene, van Rensselaer attempted to send reinforcements, but many of his militia refused to cross the river. As a result, American forces on Queenston Heights, led by Lieutenant Colonel Winfield Scott and militia Brigadier General William Wadsworth were overwhelmed and captured. Having lost over a 1,000 men in the defeat, van Rensselaer resigned and was replaced by Smyth. With the conclusion of 1812, American efforts to invade Canada had failed on all fronts. The people of Canada, who leaders in Washington had believed would rise up against the British, had instead proved themselves to be stalwart defenders of their land and the Crown. Rather than a simple march to Canada and victory, the first six months of war saw the Northwest frontier in danger of collapse and stalemate elsewhere. It was to be a long winter on the southern side of the border. Causes of the War of 1812 | War of 1812: 101 | 1813: Success on Lake Erie, Indecisiveness Elsewhere

Materials and Surface Engineering Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Materials and Surface Engineering - Essay Example Therefore, the mating surfaces should be accessible so that the lubricant can be applied at regular intervals. However, in many cases, the mating surfaces may be in radioactive or toxic zone or may be inaccessible due to design considerations. In such cases on cannot depend on liquid lubricants. At high load and low speed the liquid lubricant film is not thick enough to ensure effective separation of the mating surfaces and therefore, frictional force and wear loss increases. Therefore, one cannot rely on liquid lubricants under such operating conditions. Liquid lubricants are not good for high temperature applications as viscosity decreases with increasing temperature and vapors may also be produced at higher temperature. Therefore, liquid lubricants are not suitable for application at higher temperatures. Liquid lubricants are not clean in itself in the sense that it gets spread on the workplace and also dirt and dust gets adhered to it deteriorating the cleanliness of the workplace further. Therefore, liquid lubricants are not preferred for clean applications. Q6. A steel ball of elastic modulus E1 and Poisson’s ratio ï  ®1 (figure, below) is pressing with load P onto a flat metallic surface of aluminum plate having elastic modulus E2 and Poisson’s ratio ï  ®2 and hardness H. (d) This equation gives a much larger value for the volume of wear than what is experimentally observed or what is observed in real life. The difference is very high and is 4 to 7 order of magnitude higher than that observed in the experiments. This is because not all but only a very small fraction of the asperity contacts result in wear of the material and therefore, in stead of the equality sign in the Archard’s wear equation, there should be a proportionality sign. When this is done a constant is introduced in the equation whose value is determined experimentally. Thus the revised equation

Children if convicted of a capital crime, should be given the death Essay

Children if convicted of a capital crime, should be given the death penalty - Essay Example Historically, only 2 percent of capital punishment was juvenile execution since a large number of capital punishment imposed on children was either reversed or commuted. Often public opinion is considered, but â€Å"it is critical to distinguish between judging what is cruel and unusual punishment and what should become policy for such issues as capital punishment† (Kalbeitzer & Goldstein, 174). This paper focuses on different perspectives regarding this sensitive issue. Unlike many developed countries, United States is still embracing capital punishment for serious offenders. One major objective of juvenile criminal system â€Å"is to hold juvenile offenders accountable for delinquent acts while providing treatment, rehabilitative services, and programs designed to prevent future involvement in law-violating behavior† (Cothern, 1). The juvenile court was established in Chicago in 1889 in order to protect the juvenile offenders from receiving rough treatment in the criminal justice system. The juvenile court accepted that adults and children have different developmental capacities; therefore it advocated rehabilitation as alternative for capital punishment in case of children. However due to the growing number of young people getting involved in criminal activities in the turn of this century, the juvenile justice system has become more prone towards more rigid policies and stricter punishments. It now happens that children below the age of 1 8 who have committed capital crimes are subjected to the ultimate form of punishment like the death penalty or life imprisonment without parole. Supporters of juvenile death penalty see it as a way to deter other young people from committing similar kinds of crimes, and a way to maintain public safety (Cothern, 1-2). As of 2000, more than two-third of all independent states advocate death penalty. In 1999, 30 offenders were executed other than 3,500 others who were on death row. Even

Physics in the Past Essay Example for Free

Physics in the Past Essay One hundred years ago, in a poky apartment in Bern, Switzerland, Albert Einstein, then just a 26-year-old patent office clerk still working part-time towards his PhD, published five ground breaking scientific papers. Each of these papers, written during Einsteins annus mirabilis , has become a classic in the history of science: On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light , which discusses optical photons and photoelectric effects. Molecular and New Measurement , which deduces the mathematical equation for calculating the speed of the diffusion of molecules. On the Motion of Small Particles Suspended in Stationary Liquids Required by the Molecular-Kinetic Theory of Heat , which provides proof for the existence of atoms. Does the Inertia of a Body Depend upon its Internal Energy, which proposes the idea for two-way transformation between mass and energy according to the special theory of relativity. On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies , which proposes a new theory on the relationship between time and space. This paper served as the foundation for the theory of relativity. The contemporary physics revolution, based on the theory of relativity and quantum theory, has led science into a new era. Starting from this, human exploration has extended to the boundless universe, to the distant origin of the cosmos and to the microscopic structure of objects previously unknown to mankind. Contemporary physics revolution has also spurred revolution in life sciences and geosciences in the last years. All these have changed mankinds outlook on matter, time, space, life and the universe. Moreover, this contemporary physics revolution has also given birth to technological physics including nuclear energy, semiconductors, laser, new materials such as with superconductivity, and fostered rapid development of a wide range of new technologies that have changed the methods of our industrial production and our ways of life while bringing the world to the new knowledge economics era. Founders of contemporary physics, Einstein the most outstanding among them, are undoubtedly epoch figures in the history of science and the history of mankind. It is therefore both of significance and importance for us to commemorate them in our reflections on the development of physics in the last one hundred years not just to express our gratitude but to draw inspiration from their achievements and build on their legacy to create a better future for all humankind. 1. The inconsistency between experiments and theories gave birth to new science concepts At the end of the 19 th century, people were still intoxicated with the interpretations given by classical physics. Some even held that there was not much more to do in physics. It was under such a state that the discovery of some physical phenomena revealed the limitations of interpretations given by classical physics. High-temperature measurement technology, called for by the rapid development of the metallurgical industry, led to research in thermal radiation. In the mid 19 th century, Germany emerged as the birthplace for research in this field. Thermal radiation refers to the electromagnetic waves emitted by matter when heated and largely depends on the temperature of the matter itself. Maxwells electromagnetic field theory regards light as an electromagnetic phenomenon. Although this explains the propagation of light, it does not explain the emission and reception of thermal radiation. G. R. Kirchhoff (1824—1887) advanced to use black body as an ideal body for research on thermal radiation (1859). W. Wien (1864-1928) confirmed that it is possible to regard the thermal radiation performance of a pored cavity as a black body (1896). A series of experiments demonstrated that the density of the energy emitted by such black body is related to its temperature and not to its shape or materials. Theoretical explanation of the energy spectrum curve of a black body became an essential issue in research on thermal radiation at the time. Based on the general principle of thermal mechanics and some special assumptions, Wien developed a formula to determine the energy density associated with particular wavelengths for any given temperature of a radiating black body (1896). Max Plank joined research on heat radiation during the same period. To explain the energy distribution curve of the radiated light spectrum of a black body, Plank developed a formula. It was not until 1900 that scientists proved the veracity of the formula through experimentation. Plancks formula requires that the energy emitted or absorbed by black body is the energy quanta that determine its amount. This implies that energy, like a matter, has the properties of particles, i. e. , energy also has separability and discreteness. In 1905, Einstein extended the concept of quanta to the propagation of light and proposed the light quantum theory, successfully using it to explain photoelectric effect. In 1913, the Danish physicist N.  Bohr (1885 – 1962) extended the concept of quanta to atoms, and established a quantum structural model for atoms based on the discreteness hypothesis of the energy state of atoms. Dissatisfied with the lack of self- sufficiency of Bohrs atom theory, the German physicist Werner Karl Heisenberg (1901—1976) developed matrix mechanics in 1925 by starting directly from a priori data on the frequency and intensity of spectrum of visible light. The following year, the Austrian physicist E. Schr? dinger (1892—1961) improved the wave-particle duality matter wave theory of L. V. de Broglie (1892—1994), leading to wave mechanics. Subsequent research proved the mathematical equivalence of both matrix mechanics and wave mechanics. The American physicist R. P. Feynman (1918 – 1988) later developed the third equivalent path integral quantum mechanics. It is until this period of time that quantum theory was established to its robust architecture. The thermal radiation hypothesis became the logical starting point for the birth of quantum theory. The quantum of energy concept was developed in 1900. As a result of its development and extended application, quantum mechanics, which describes the motion of subatomic particles, took form in the 1920s. The combination of quantum mechanics with the special theory of relativity gave birth to quantum field theory, which describes the generation and annihilation of subatomic particles. Development of quantum field theory has experienced three stages: classical quantum field theory (symmetrical), standard quantum field theory (non-symmetrical) and super-symmetrical quantum field theory. It has not only revealed the secrets of the subatomic world invisible to the naked eye, but deepened our understanding of the evolution of the universe and revolutionized the way people perceive the world. Quantum field theory, moreover, has set the stage for a series of key technological breakthroughs. It has been demonstrated from the experimental research on a black body radiation to the advancement of the quantum theory that science is, after all, still a positivistic knowledge system. That is, as long as a theory is not consistent with rigorous experimental results, a scientist has all the reasons to doubt the theory itself no matter how authoritative the theory it may be, no matter how many people have upheld it, and no matter how many years it has been embraced. At the same time, we should understand that the ultimate results of scientific research should give theoretical interpretation of natural phenomena discovered while this requires not only rigorous and scientific attitude and rational challenging spirit, but also profound thinking ability and deliberate analysis ability and theoretical reasoning ability. 2. Key breakthroughs in science hinge upon distillation of scientific research questions The theory of relativity advanced by Albert Einstein (1879 – 1955) is a brand new outlook on space and time. The key scientific question for the theory of relativity lies in simultaneous relativity. The theory of relativity has given justified interpretations about the relationship between time and space, the relationship between space and distribution of matters, and the relationship between matters and energy. In the process, it transformed the knowledge system of classical physics dating back to Sir Isaac Newton(1642-1727). The theory of relativity, together with quantum theory, not only formed the foundation for development of physics in the 20 th century but also raised our understanding of the nature to an entirely new level, thus having a profound effect on the way of thinking and perceptions of the world. The founding of the theory of relativity originated from the crisis of Ether, a hypothesized carrier for electromagnetic waves. The experiment report On the Relative Motion between the Earth and Light Ether published by the American physicist A. A. Michelson (1852—1931), revealed that the theory of relativity, which is universally correct in the reference to Newtonian mechanics, is incorrect in Maxwells electromagnetic field theory. Both the Dutch physicist H. A. Lorentz (1853—1928) and the French physicist J. H. Poincare (1854—1912) attempted to solve this contradiction by maintaining the Ether hypothesis. Lorentz proved that the earth system and Ether follow the same law at the first-order approximation by incorporating â€Å"length contraction† (1892), â€Å"regional time† (1895) and a new conversion relationship (1904) while the relativity principle developed by Poincare and the conversion group (1905) developed by Lorentz emphasized the universal validity of the relativity principle. Although both deviated from the framework of classical physics lay at the doorstep to the theory of relativity,but it was left to Albert Einstein to turn the key and push the door open. Einstein believed that the electromagnetic field had an independent physical existence and held the Ether hypothesis to be superfluous. His most important contribution may reside inside in the fact that he raised the critical scientific problem of â€Å"simultaneous relativity†. In On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies (1905), Einstein claimed that two events happening simultaneously in the same location do not depend on the observations of the observers; yet two events happening simultaneously at two different locations do depend on their observations. It would be meaningful only if it is indicated clearly that the events are relative to which observer. We could hardly observe such relativity of simultaneity in our daily lives because this can be discovered only when the speed of an observer is close to the speed of light. Starting from the simultaneity of relativity concept, Einstein deducted the main conclusions for the theory of special relativity through two principles: constancy of the speed of light and relativity. The general theory of relativity (1915) and the unified field theory are further developments of the theory of special relativity. Through his trilogy research on the theory of relativity, Einstein revealed to his physics colleagues his extraordinary creativity in scientific thinking. 3. Scientific imagination requires the support of rigorous experimental evidence In the year following the publication of his general theory, Einstein publishedObservations Made on Cosmology Based on the General Theory of Relativity (1917), which marked the birth of modern cosmology. Although Einsteins cosmological model followed the static Newtonian view on the universe, its field theory lays the groundwork for the existence of dynamic solutions to cosmology. The Dutch astronomer W. de Sitter (1878-1933), the Russian mathematician A. Friedmann(1888-1925) and the Belgian physicist G. Lemaitre(1894—1966) published the expanding universe theory in 1917, 1922 and 1927, respectively. The ‘red shift effect observed by the American astronomer Edwin Hubble (1889-1953) offered strong support for the expanding universe theory. Drawing on the expanding universe theory, the Russian American physicist G. Gamov (1904—1968), formulated the idea of a hot explosion of matter and energy at the time of the origin of the universe by incorporating knowledge in nuclear physics. His student R. A. Alpher(1921-) and others further derived in 1948, that the big bang explosion took place about 15 billion to 20 billion years ago and hypothesized that remains from the big bang explosion may still be circulating in the universe, presenting 5K cosmological background radiation. In 1964, two American radio engineers, A.A. Penzias (1933-) and R. W. Wilson (1936-), discovered evenly distributed isotropic cosmic microwave background radiation while tracing the source of radio noise that was interfering with the development of a communications program involving satellites. This microwave radiation is coincidentally equivalent to 3. 5K blackbody radiation. This discovery is regarded as a confirmation of the cosmic background radiation as a result of the big bang explosion. The latter years witnessed the rise of the big bang theory, which developed as the â€Å"standard model† for cosmology. In the early of 20 th century, Einstein listed the origin of a geomagnetic field as one of the five major challenges in physics. However, not until the 1960s, after the seismic wave method confirmed the layered structure of the earth, did scientists devise the â€Å"self-exciting dynamo† hypothesis, the full scientific endorsement of which awaited evidence from differential core-mantle movement obtained in 1995. Increased knowledge on the inner structure of the solid earth mainly relies on the seismic wave method. The concept of layered structure of the earth has gradually formed through analysis of variation of the seismic wave passing through the inner structure of the earth. The Croatian geophysicist, A. Mohorovi? ie (1857—1936), discovered the interface between the earths crust and mantle (1909); The German-American seismologist, B. Gutenberg (1889—1960), discovered the interface between the earths mantle and the core (1914); and the Dutch seismologist I. Lehmann discovered the interface between the earths liquid outer and solid inner core (1914). The New Zealander physicist K. E. Bullen proposed the layered model of the earth (1940). The differential core-mantle revolving movement, a hypothesis designed to explain the origin of the geomagnetic field, was later used as a mechanism to explain the inversion of the polarity of geomagnetism. However, no direct scientific evidence had been found. Based on their analysis of recorded data for 38 earthquakes, which took place between 1967 to 1995 near the Sandwich Islands close to the South Pole in South America, Dawn (Xiaodong) Song and Paul G.  Richards, Columbia University, in US, measured the speed of seismic wave transmitted from the earths inner core to a seismographic station in Alaska near the North Pole. They found that the time it took seismic wave to travel from the South Pole to the North Pole had been reduced by 0. 3 seconds over the previous years. This confirms that the earths inner core is revolving slightly faster than its crust and the mantle—indeed the earths inner core will turn one extra circle in about 300 to 400 years. Dr.  Su Weijia, another Chinese scholar residing in the US, and Dziewonski, an American seismologist, reached a similar conclusion based on analyses of seismic data from about 2000 seismographic stations around the globe. Based on their computation, the revolving speed of the earths inner core is even faster, 20 – 30 degrees just over the timeframe 1969 to 1973. It can be seen from the propositions and improvement of the theory of relativity by Einstein, the big bang theory and the geomagnetic theory that while it is important to solve problems in development of science, it seems even more important to raise key questions in science. Raising questions is the prelude to scientific research. More importantly, raising key questions reveals the creativity associated with science. Sometimes a key question in science leads to new fields and new research directions. To ask the right questions, one must have a through understanding of existing knowledge, a love for truth that transcends respect for authority, and fine observational skills and creative thinking. At the same time, one must be rational bold and confident.

Comparing the Duke and Angelo in Measure for Measure :: Comparison Compare Contrast Essays

Comparing the Duke and Angelo in Measure for Measure Angelo and the Duke are similar in the following respects: they both initially claim immunity to love and later come to be affected by it; to achieve ends they desire, both manipulate others into situations those others would not willingly choose to be in; both have sought to maintain a particular reputation; they both spend much of the play seeming other than what they appear; both think themselves to be other than what they are in the beginning; and both claim to value a life removed. The Duke says: â€Å"Believe not that the dribbling dart of love / Can pierce a complete bosom† (1.3.2-3). Angelo said, â€Å"Ever till now, / When men were fond, I smiled and wondered how† (2.2.185-186). The Duke asks Isabella to marry him by the end—which isn’t necessarily proof of love, however. The play begins with the Duke manipulating Angelo to â€Å"weed† the vice of the people (3.2.258), and to see â€Å"what our seemers be† (1.3.58). The Duke has reason to believe that Angelo will strictly enforce laws that the Duke had neglected to enforce (1.3.50-53). We have already seen how Angelo manipulates Isabella. The Duke’s manipulation, he believes, will bring order to his people without him personally having to be perceived a tyrant, â€Å"And yet my nature never in the fight / To do it slander† (1.3.42-43). Angelo, too, has taken pride in maintaining a particular reputation. The Duke’s great concern about being slandered suggests he has a less than complete bosom, showing a lack of self-knowledge—another feature shared by Angelo. The Duke manipulates others in part by using a disguise. Angelo, too, comes to use a disguise (2.4.12-15; 2.4.153-156). In addition, the Duke has â€Å"ever loved the life removed† (1.3.8), which sounds similar to Angelo’s reputation for austerity. The differences between the Duke and Angelo are far greater, however, depending on the reading the play is given (All the perspectives I mention below come from Lever’s ‘Introduction’). It is possible to interpret the Duke as being more a stage device than a full-fledged character. His primary role may be to represent the middle way that good rulers should adopt, and to orchestrate the trials and learning experiences that move the other characters from their extreme positions into more moderate ways of being. The Duke does this by implementing the historic ruse of going in disguise among his people to find out how things are really going, and to set them right if need be.

What Is Demarketing

What is de-marketing? De-marketing is a process to make a product less attractive (so that the demand of the product will reduce). The company will take measures to decrease the demand of customers on a product. A good example of de-marketing is cigarettes. Companies put phrases as ‘’smoking kills’’ on the boxes of their cigarettes, to make people aware of the hazards of smoking. They hope this measure will reduce the amount of smokers in the world. This is a great example for de-marketing. I found the following article on the internet: Hungary institutes hamburger-tax. Link of article: http://www. ibtimes. com/hungary-institutes-hamburger-tax-293105) The article is about the fact that Hungary institutes a tax on unhealthy food. They will raise the taxes on food that deems unhealthy, such as hamburgers, energy drinks, salted nuts, crisps and other ‘’junk food’’. I think this is an example of de-marketing, because they try to make unhealthy food less attractive (with raising the taxes on it), in the hope people will buy it less and consume more healthy food. Another example of de-marketing is on the following product: Magnum Ice creams. ’ Een beroemde â€Å"De-marketing† case: Magnum ijsjes! In het eerste jaar dat de magnum ijsjes op de markt kwamen kon men niet of nauwelijks aan de vraag voldoen. Men kon de prijs verhogen, maar men koos voor het minder aantrekkelijk maken van het product. Zo werden de mooi ontworpen verpakking vervangen door gewoon een simpele zilverkleurige folie. Het product zag er gewoon wat minder aantrekkelijk uit. Daarnaast werd er juist een grote marketing campagne gestart om de vraag naar Cornetto's te verhogen.Hiermee zou de vraag naar Magnums ook iets dalen. I will summarize this article: In the first years that Magnum (the ice cream brand) was active, the demand to their product was so high, that the company could not satisfy the demand of their customers. To reduce the demand for Magnum ice creams, they put the ice creams in simple gray wrapping paper to make the packing less attractive. Anothe r measure they took, was to introduce the ‘’Cornetto’’ (another product of the company). This would reduce the demand of magnums slightly.